Crucifixion stands as one of history's most brutal forms of capital punishment, intertwining with cultural, legal, and medical narratives across civilizations. Contrary to common belief, the Romans were not the progenitors of crucifixion; this gruesome method was already in practice among Assyrians, Phoenicians, and Persians long before the Roman adaptation. The Romans, however, refined it into an excruciating art of death, primarily reserved for the most despised individuals within society. This form of execution was so severe that Roman citizens were almost always exempt, highlighting its status as a punishment for the lowest of the low ([[Tzaferis2015-zm]]) > [!quote] [[Edwards1986-gz]] >"Although the Romans did not invent crucifixion, they perfected it as a form of torture and capital punishment that was designed to produce a slow death with maximum pain and suffering. (10,17) It was one of the most disgraceful and cruel methods of execution and usually was reserved only for slaves, foreigners, revolutionaries, and the vilest of criminals. (3,25,28) Roman law usually protected Roman citizens from crucifixion, (5) except perhaps in the case of desertion by soldiers..... >With arms outstretched but not taut, the wrists were nailed to the patibulum. (7,11) It has been shown that the ligaments and bones of the wrist can support the weight of a body hanging from them , but the palms cannot. (11) Accordingly, the iron spikes probably were driven between the radius and the carpals or between the two rows of carpal bones, (2,10,11,30) either proximal to or through the strong bandlike flexor retinaculum and the various intercarpal ligaments. Although a nail in either location in the wrist might pass between the bony elements and thereby produce no fractures, the likelihood of painful periosteal injury would seem great. Furthermore, the driven nail would crush or sever the rather large sensorimotor median nerve. (2,7,11) The stimulated nerve would produce excruciating bolts of fiery pain in both arms. (7,9) Although the severed median nerve would result in paralysis of a portion of the hand, ischemic contractures and impalement of various ligaments by the iron spike might produce a clawlike grasp. > Most commonly, the feet were fixed to the front of the stipes by means of an iron spike driven through the first or second intermetatarsal space, just distal to the tarsometatarsal joint. (2,5,8,11,30) It is likely that the deep peroneal nerve and branches of the medial and lateral plantar nerves would have been injured by the nails. Although scourging may have resulted in considerable blood loss, crucifixion per se was a relatively bloodless procedure, since no major arteries, other than perhaps the deep plantar arch, pass through the favored anatomic sites of transfixion. (2,10,11)" The Romans' adaptation of crucifixion as a method of execution thus stands as a testament to their capacity for cruelty and their commitment to enforcing capital punishment as a deterrent. Roman citizens were typically spared from such a fate, showcasing the punishment's infamy.