We have good reason to believe that Jesus was killed on a cross ([Tenney, S. M. (1964)](https://paperpile.com/app/p/994aa6b6-c1b3-02d5-a70a-2886eac949ab 'ON DEATH BY CRUCIFIXION'). [Habermas, G., Kopel, J., & Shaw, B. C. F. (2021).](https://paperpile.com/app/p/a31bfbf2-3813-0012-b8d6-3c266656b832 'Medical views on the death by crucifixion of Jesus Christ') [Holoubek, J. E., & Holoubek, A. B. (1995).](https://paperpile.com/app/p/ba830350-d1cb-0598-a529-b8c9aa404583 'Execution by crucifixion. History, methods and cause of death')) from external sources outside of the Bible. For the purpose of this submission, let's disregard all extrabiblical data and assume that what the Gospels record about this night is accurate since they are the closest documents to what really happened. First, Jesus was in great distress before the fateful night began. As he prayed in the Garden of Gethsemane, it's recorded that he sweated blood due to the high level of stress he experienced (Luke 22:44). For many years, this seemed fantastical, but it is now known that this is a very rare phenomenon called [Hematidrosis](https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/hematidrosis-hematohidrosis 'What Is Hematidrosis?') ([Scott, C. T. (1918)](https://paperpile.com/app/p/9bad8a40-ca92-0c21-b367-c894737a7a30 'A CASE OF HAEMATIDROSIS')). Hematidrosis is the result of hemorrhages into the sweat glands under the skin due to great emotional stress . While His blood loss was very minimal from this, on a cold night it could have produced chills. We Read in the Gospels that Jesus was beaten before He was sent to the cross at the Jewish trials. The guards blindfolded Jesus, spat on him, and struck him in the face with their fists. During the Roman trials, He was stuck repeatably on the head with a club and mocked. Next, He was sent to be scourged, which is described in the following way: > [!quote] [On the Physical Death of Jesus Christ](https://paperpile.com/app/p/ffed122e-e6c6-075e-833c-b82e50edde9a 'On the physical death of Jesus Christ') >the man was stripped of his clothing, and his hands were tied to an upright post. The backside, and legs were flogged� The severity of the scourging depended on the disposition of the lictors and was intended to weaken the victim to a state just short of collapse or death.� > From there, Jesus was led to carry His cross from the scourging site to Golgotha where He was to be crucified. Because of the horrific beatings, Jesus was not able to carry the cross and collapsed after a short distance. He was so weakened at this state that a passerby was made to carry the cross for Him (Matthew 27:32, Luke 23:26). This is backed by further historical evidence that some who underwent this whipping did not survive to even get crucified ([Philo of Alexandria](https://paperpile.com/app/p/19bef9ec-64b2-0165-8db3-9e0971e7bbd1 'Philo : in ten volumes (and two supplementary volumes). 6 (1994)'),[Craig S. Keener](https://paperpile.com/app/p/f6f57708-fb37-0c06-b1a6-8868faa3378e 'The Historical Jesus of the Gospels'), [Ben Witherington Iii](https://paperpile.com/app/p/14d622c4-8ac9-0610-bc81-3f3a49d084e2 'New Testament History: A Narrative Account'), [D. A. Carson](https://paperpile.com/app/p/437b258d-0f53-047a-b218-9d171890460e 'The Gospel According to John'), [Josephus](https://paperpile.com/app/p/08b3466a-e84b-0000-aab2-53d46e0f6236 'The Jewish War'), [Eusebius of Caesarea (Bishop of Caesarea), Arthur Cushman McGiffert](https://paperpile.com/app/p/3eaa5a3b-2d43-00e2-9f3b-2bec08b38b37 'The History of the Church'), [Shimon Gibson](https://paperpile.com/app/p/10fba978-da37-08e7-b392-20c68c28fb82 'The Final Days of Jesus: The Archaeological Evidence')). Once at the hill, Jesus was then nailed to the cross. He was most likely pierced on His wrists ([Davis. (1997)](https://paperpile.com/app/p/f703ee28-d0d8-0c0d-8656-f65c1558422d 'The Passion of Christ from a Medical Point of view')) and feet [(Haas, N. (1970))](https://paperpile.com/app/p/77430630-5247-042c-83ea-08df67fc0ec2 'Anthropological Observations on the Skeletal Remains from Givat ha-Mivtar'). The Gospels then record that He was on the Cross for over six hours ([Shimon Gibson](https://paperpile.com/app/p/10fba978-da37-08e7-b392-20c68c28fb82 'The Final Days of Jesus: The Archaeological Evidence')) before taking his final breath. Before His body was taken down from the cross, the Roman soldier stabbed a spear in His side to make His death certain ([Bruce Chilton](https://paperpile.com/app/p/e2790cf9-4e4c-0038-b2b1-84261a87b965 'Mary Magdalene: A Biography')). The blood and water that is recorded to have poured out from His side are consistent with modern medical knowledge about pericardial effusion and pleural effusion, the fluid buildup around the lungs and heart ([Stroud, W. (1871).](https://paperpile.com/app/p/5774979b-3b38-00e7-af6a-980802ad7b66 'The Physical Cause of the Death of Christ: And Its Relation to the Principles and Practice of Christianity') [Barbet, P. (2018)](https://paperpile.com/app/p/202a3cbf-aa05-07bf-b5fb-70bc0f35299a 'A Doctor at Calvary: The Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ As Described by a Surgeon'). [Maslen, M. W., & Mitchell, P. D. (2006).](https://paperpile.com/app/p/383687b0-afa2-0660-b4fb-4ae0aa83930a 'Medical theories on the cause of death in crucifixion') [Ball, D. A. (1989)](https://paperpile.com/app/p/f80d3da5-9bd7-0168-a12c-54977e294b05 'The crucifixion and death of a man called Jesus'),[ed James Patrick Holding](https://paperpile.com/app/p/3f082957-fd38-02ab-9b66-d796431fce55 'Defending the Resurrection')). ### To summarize this submission: - Jesus was in an extreme state of stress and most likely did not sleep the night before the Crucifixion. - He was abandoned and left by His closest friends. - He was beaten in the face repeatedly by guards in the Jewish trials. - Romans taunted and beat Him with a club. - He was tied to a post and underwent scourging, resulting in extreme blood loss. - Jesus was forced to walk 2.5 miles carrying a cross, one that He could not bear, in front of all of Jerusalem. - His Crucifixion lasted for over 6 hours. - He was pierced with a spear before being taken down from the cross ([Barb, A. A. (1971)](https://paperpile.com/app/p/b2cb6484-189c-0bf9-897d-ecab1c34bfdd 'The Wound in Christs Side').) William Edwards, Wesley Gabel, and Floyd Hosmer put it best. > [!quote] [On the Physical Death of Jesus Christ](https://paperpile.com/app/p/ffed122e-e6c6-075e-833c-b82e50edde9a 'On the physical death of Jesus Christ') > Clearly, the weight of historical and medical evidence indicates that Jesus was dead before the wound to his side was inflicted and supports the traditional view that the spear, thrust between his right ribs, probably perforated not only the right lung but also the pericardium and heart and thereby ensured his death. Accordingly, interpretations based on the assumption that Jesus did not die on the cross appear to be at odds with modern medical knowledge. Even if the Gospels were shown the be unreliable, the extra-biblical historical accounts confirm that Jesus died on the cross ([Paul Maier](https://paperpile.com/app/p/09f2ed4f-6d74-063b-80fd-cc39622a262f 'The Empty Tomb as History'), [Luke Johnson](https://paperpile.com/app/p/7c39c5af-7d8e-04b0-a32f-4604ed95154b 'The Real Jesus'), [John Dominic Crossan](https://paperpile.com/app/p/84b6dc9e-fa1d-031c-b5bb-58f59316907f 'Jesus Revolutionary Biography'), [Craig S. Keener](https://paperpile.com/app/p/f6f57708-fb37-0c06-b1a6-8868faa3378e 'The Historical Jesus of the Gospels'), [Raymond E. Brown](https://paperpile.com/app/p/1c6c8332-3351-0c8b-8e43-58d9ddca3266 'The Death of the Messiah, From Gethsemane to the Grave, Volume 2: A Commentary on the Passion Narratives in the Four Gospels (The Anchor Yale Bible Reference Library)'), [Gerd Ludemann](https://paperpile.com/app/p/888b74cb-c5a8-03dd-ab98-f67d1b1565c7 'The Resurrection Of Christ: A Historical Inquiry')), the idea that he would be able to walk away or survive is foolish ([Christopher Bryan](https://paperpile.com/app/p/74b47aa0-fb66-0995-8470-da25febdf3c1 'The Resurrection of the Messiah'), [Seneca, Dialogue 3:2.2](https://paperpile.com/app/p/f2048031-5f38-0d1a-aea1-e7290d8ba0e2 'Minor dialogues')). Read more at ([Clark. (1890).](https://paperpile.com/app/p/19b6690c-111c-0851-b90f-7cf1e35b3ddb 'What was the physical cause of the death of Jesus Christ?') [Brenner, B. (2005).](https://paperpile.com/app/p/e2ec7fb3-ace6-02ef-ab01-fa1ac1763f93 'Did Jesus Christ die of pulmonary embolism?') [Le Bec, E. (1941.)](https://paperpile.com/app/p/0fb8645d-b50d-05e3-ac9f-3f3d1e6c7f5c 'Death of the Cross: A Physiological Study of the Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ') [Zugibe, F. T. (2005).](https://paperpile.com/app/p/8a267278-a5f5-0769-82cd-5453e24b4c68 'The Crucifixion of Jesus, Completely Revised and Expanded: A Forensic Inquiry')) Jesus was in an extreme state of stress, beaten and scourged before being crucified. He was likely pierced on His wrists and feet, and on the cross for over 6 hours before being stabbed in the side with a spear. Both the Gospels and extra-biblical sources confirm Jesus' death on the cross.